Countercontrol: A Relational Frame Theory (RFT) Account and Revival of a 70-Year-Old Skinnerian Term.

Countercontrol is a Skinnerian operant concept that posits that an individual's attempts to exert control over another person's behavior may evoke a countercontrolling response from the person being controlled that functions to avoid or escape the potentially aversive conditions generated by the controller. Despite Skinner's historical concerns regarding the detrimental effects of countercontrol in terms of hindering optimal societal growth and cultural evolution, the concept has not been widely applied within behavior analysis. Drawing from recent developments in rule-governed behavior and relational frame theory, this article seeks to explicate countercontrol from a contemporary behavior analytic perspective and presents several modern-day societal applications. In particular, a relational frame theory account of rule-governed behavior is used as a framework to elucidate the behavioral processes by which rule-following occurs (or fails to occur) in the context of countercontrol. Implications of a renewed focus on countercontrol for understanding pressing societal issues are also discussed.

Developing the Family Involvement Questionnaire-Long-Term Care: A Measure of Familial Involvement in the Lives of Residents at Long-Term Care Facilities.

INTRODUCTION: Existing measures designed to assess family involvement in the lives of older adults residing in long-term care facilities are basic, using visitation frequency as the prominent gauge of involvement in a situation specific fashion. The purpose of this study was to design and validate a measure of family involvement that could be used to gauge more aspects of family involvement than visitation alone and be useful in a variety of settings for both researchers and long-term care facility administrators. METHODS: Long-term facility staff were asked to assist in creating a 40-item questionnaire that used 4-point Likert scales to measure various aspects of family involvement. The finalized Family Involvement Questionnaire-Long-Term Care (FIQ-LTC) was distributed to the family members of older adults residing in long-term care facilities around the country. RESULTS: A total of 410 participants responded. Researchers found that the FIQ-LTC was highly reliable (α = .965). Results also indicated that a significant correlation between distance and overall involvement (r = -.121, p = .015) was no longer significant (r = .17, p = .740) when the effect of a question asking the frequency of visitation was controlled for. DISCUSSION: These results indicate that existing measures that use visitation frequency as the sole measure of involvement are insufficient. The newly developed FIQ-LTC can serve as a more complete measure of family involvement.

A Review of Child Sexual Abuse: Impact, Risk, and Resilience in the Context of Culture.

Child sexual abuse is a problem with both a national and worldwide prevalence. In this review, the authors note that while empirical research has clearly shown the negative impact of child sexual abuse on social, psychological, and sexual functioning later in life, it has also been reported that some individuals remain asymptomatic despite a history of experiencing child sexual abuse. This implies that negative outcomes later in life are not inevitable and illustrates the critical need to elucidate how resilience may moderate the negative impacts of child sexual abuse. In addition to emphasising the role of resilience, this review also underscores the important role that cultural context plays in understanding child sexual abuse, as there are known risk factors and protective factors specific to different cultures. Similarly, one's culture may also influence whether abuse is reported and addressed, and the topic is given special attention in this paper because it is not widely discussed within the existing literature. The impact of child sexual abuse on mental health, sexual health, and social functioning is also discussed.

Best Practices in Utilizing the Changing Criterion Design.

The changing criterion design (CCD) has been a recognized format of single-case research for four decades. Published examples of the CCD have been limited and the structure of the design used in the literature has varied to a degree that might engender confusion. This review examines the structure of CCD studies published to date to identify prior implementation practices and identify best practices for future use.

Sensitivity of the Balance Error Scoring System and the Sensory Organization Test in the Combat Environment.

This study evaluated the utility of the Balance Error Scoring System (BESS) and the Sensory Organization Test (SOT) as tools for the screening and monitoring of Service members (SMs) with mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in a deployed setting during the acute and subacute phases of recovery. Patient records (N = 699) were reviewed for a cohort of SMs who sustained a blast-related mTBI while deployed to Afghanistan and were treated at the Concussion Restoration Care Center (CRCC) at Camp Leatherneck. On initial intake into the CRCC, participants completed two assessments of postural control, the BESS, and SOT. SMs with mTBI performed significantly worse on the BESS and SOT when compared with comparative samples. When the SOT data were further examined using sensory ratios, the results indicated that postural instability was primarily a result of vestibular and visual integration dysfunction (r > 0.62). The main finding of this study was that the sensitivity of the SOT composite score (50-58%) during the acute phase was higher than previous sensitivities found in the sports medicine literature for impact-related trauma.

Unexpected Results From a Change in Token Type.

We have noted an unusual phenomenon in our association with an inpatient behavioral health facility located in the midwestern United States. Most consumers treated in this facility exhibit conduct disorders, oppositional defiant disorder or attention deficit disorders. The facility also treats individuals with various anxiety disorders, posttraumatic stress disorder, and autism. Within the facility, we collected data from a unit that monthly serves a population of 38 to 47 children ages 3 to 11 years old.

Dolphin-Assisted Therapy: Claims versus Evidence.

The purpose of this paper is to review and critique studies that have been conducted on dolphin-assisted therapy for children with various disorders. Studies have been released claiming swimming with dolphins is therapeutic and beneficial for children with autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, physical disabilities, and other psychological disorders. The majority of the studies conducted supporting the effectiveness of dolphin-assisted therapy have been found to have major methodological concerns making it impossible to draw valid conclusions. Readers will be informed of the history of, theory behind, and variations of dolphin-assisted therapy along with a review and critique of studies published which purportedly support its use.

Dubowitz syndrome: a review and implications for cognitive, behavioral, and psychological features.

UNLABELLED: Dubowitz syndrome is a rare autosomal recessive disorder characterized by micorcephaly, short stature, abnormal faces, and mild to severe mental retardation. Growth retardation occurs both intrauterine and postnatal. Behavioral characteristics include hyperactivity, short attention span, and aggressiveness. Behavior problems include difficulty feeding, sleep disturbance, and bedwetting. Individuals with the disorder have displayed shyness, fear of crowds, and dislike of loud noises. A high-pitched or hoarse voice is common. Deficits have been found in speech and language skills, reasoning and memory skills, self-help skills, and psychomotor functioning. Ocular, dental, cutaneous, skeletal, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, neurological, immunological, and hematological medical difficulties have been noted. Approximately 148 cases have been described in the literature. The cause of the disorder remains unknown, however, research suggests genetic origin. Past research emphasizes physical characteristics and medical complications. There is a lack of cognitive, behavioral, and psychological information available regarding the disorder. This article presents a review of the literature and provides assessment and treatment implications for the cognitive, behavioral, and psychological aspects of Dubowitz syndrome. KEYWORDS: Dubowitz; Syndrome; Autosomal; Recessive.

The role of behavior analysis in the rehabilitation of persons with dementia.

With the rapidly aging population, it is expected that increases in cases of dementia will double over the next 20 years. Currently, there is no cure for diseases such as Alzheimer's disease or frontotemporal dementia (FTD) that cause progressive dementia, and only a few pharmacological interventions that slow the progression of the decline exist. Given that there is no cure available, a rehabilitation approach that emphasizes maintaining existing abilities and removing excess disability (as opposed to emphasizing cure or recovery) for as long as possible is warranted. The current paper proposes that nonpharmacological rehabilitation efforts need to target 5 broad areas/targets: memory enhancement, altering social contingencies and communication styles, improving self-care skills, the arrangement of physical environments to maintain and improve functioning, and increasing physical fitness/physical activity. The purpose of this paper is to review specific behaviorally oriented interventions that target these 5 areas and show promise for inclusion in comprehensive rehabilitation efforts for individuals with dementia.

Command use and compliance in staff communication with elderly residents of long-term care facilities.

Verbal communication between nursing assistants and individuals with dementia can be challenging, particularly during hands-on caregiving tasks. Although there are many aspects of verbal communication that can affect the quality of an interaction, one potentially important communication variable is the types of commands issued by nursing assistants when they need a resident to complete a task. The purpose of this study was to examine the kinds of commands used by nursing care staff when they interact with patients with dementia during activities of daily living. Commands were categorized according to their feasibility/specificity as well as form. An additional goal of this study was to measure compliance and noncompliance rates associated with the various categories of commands. Results indicate that alpha commands (clear, concise, and feasible) account for higher compliance and less noncompliance compared with beta commands (ambiguous, interrupted, and not feasible). In addition, commands that are stated directly, that clarify a previous command, and that are repeated exactly produce better compliance. It is concluded that training nursing staff to change the types of commands they provide during caregiving tasks may reduce distress experienced by both staff and residents.

Brief report: childhood disintegrative disorder: a brief examination of eight case studies.

Childhood disintegrative disorder (CDD) is a rare condition characterized by distinct regression of developmental and behavioral functioning following a period of apparently normal development for at least 2 years. The purpose of this article is to present the developmental, behavioral, psychosocial, and medical histories of eight children who have been diagnosed with CDD in an attempt to advance the understanding of this rare disorder. Results indicate the average age of onset was 3.21 years. Three cases reported an insidious onset while two cases exhibited acute onset. Developmental and behavioral milestones were met at age appropriate times in each case and significant deterioration of formerly acquired skills and abnormalities in functioning were clinically present in all eight cases.

Is smoking related to body image satisfaction, stress, and self-esteem in young adults?

OBJECTIVES: To examine the association of smoking and gender with body image satisfaction, perceived stress, and self-esteem in young adults. METHODS: Respondents completed a survey consisting of Perceived Stress Scale, Body-Areas Satisfaction Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Current smokers (n = 483) and never smokers (n = 973) are included. RESULTS: Smoking and female gender were independently associated with higher perceived stress (P < 0.001). Female gender was associated with lower body image satisfaction and lower self-esteem (P < 0.001). Current smoking was associated with lower self-esteem (P = 0.007). CONCLUSION: Smoking treatment should include stress management and self-esteem and body image improvement.